100个经典心理学效应（一）

我觉得，这比耶鲁的introductiontopsychology公开课更有趣、更实用...

以下内容来自Wikipedia的这个词条：

List of psychological effects

我看了前两个之后就停不下来了~

为什么要用Wikipedia？珍爱生命，远离百度~

audience effect

有人看着你的时候，你做事更快，但也更容易出错。

Social facilitation, or the audience effect, is the tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others than when alone. Compared to their performance when alone, when in the presence of others, they tend to perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones.

ambiguity effect

人在做选择时，倾向于确定性强的选项。

微信曾经推出了表情投稿平台，期望用曝光量来吸引作者投稿，结果收效甚微。

The ambiguity effect is a cognitive bias where decision making is affected by a lack ofinformation, or "ambiguity". The effect implies that people tend to select options for which the probability of a favorable outcome is known, over an option for which the probability of a favorable outcome is unknown.

assembly bonus effect

教授把简单的工作丢给博士，博士丢给研究生，他们组合起来创造的价值高于单个人的总和。

an assembly bonus effect requires demonstration of group performance which exceeds the combined contributions of individual group members.

Barnum effect

人们在读到关于自己性格的详细描述时，会觉得非常精准，但事实上，这些描述非常模糊和宽泛，放在任何人身上都成立，比如说星座。

The Barnum effect, also called the Forer effect, is the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them but are, in fact, vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, aura reading and some types of personality tests.

Bezold effect

一种颜色的相邻颜色发生变化时，这种颜色也会显得发生了变化。

The Bezoldeffect is an optical illusion. A color may appear different depending on itsrelation to adjacent colors.



Demonstration ofthe Bezold effect. The red seems lighter combined with the white, and darkercombined with the black.

birthday number effect

人们更喜欢与自己生日相关的数字，这种偏好来自于人的自尊需求。

The name–letter effect refers to a person's tendency to favor the letters in their name over the other letters of the alphabet and it is one of the widest used measures of implicit self-esteem. Discovered by Jozef Nuttin, the name–letter effect has been the subject of much research over the last few decades, shedding light on subjects such as implicit egotism, academic and financial success, and even the idea that people gravitate to cities that resemble their names.

boomerang effect

劝说往往产生相反的效果。

In social psychology, the boomerang effect refers to the unintended consequences of an attempt to persuade resulting in the adoption of an opposing position instead. It is sometimes also referred to "the theory of psychological reactance", stating that attempts to restrict a person's freedom often produce an "anticonformity boomerang effect".

Bouba/kiki effect

人会把「一种形状」跟「它名字的发音的嘴型」联系起来：

一般人会认为Bouba长得圆滚滚的，Kiki长得尖尖的。

bystander effect/apathy（旁观者效应）

面对受害者的求救，旁观群众往往无动于衷，因为责任扩散了。

The bystander effect, or bystander apathy, is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases in which individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present. The probability of help is inversely related to the number of bystanders. In other words, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is that any one of them will help. Several variables help to explain why the bystander effect occurs. These variables include: ambiguity, cohesiveness and diffusion of responsibility.

conjunction fallacy

描述得越具体，人们越容易相信其真实性，但事实上，越具体，真实性越低。

The conjunction fallacy is a formal fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions are more probable than a single general one.

The most often-cited example of this fallacy:

Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken,and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.

Which is more probable?

A. Linda is a bank teller.

B. Linda is a bank teller and is active inthe feminist movement.

I am particularly fond of this example “the Linda problem” because I know that the “conjoint” statement is least probable, yet a little homunculus in my head continues to jump up and down, shouting atme—“but she can’t just be a bank teller; read the description.”

Stephen J. Gould

cocktail party effect

人能够「过滤」旁人的谈话，同时对谈话中的 特定字眼 异常敏感，比如自己的名字。

The cocktail party effect is the phenomenon of being able to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, much the same way that a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room. This effect is what allows most people to "tune into" a single voice and "tune out" all others. It may also describe a similar phenomenon that occurs when one may immediately detect words of importance originatingfrom unattended stimuli, for instance hearing one's name in another conversation.

Contrast effect

什么颜色内部的灰色看起来更深？



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_effect#Types

感觉这个词条写错了，黑色内部的灰色应该看起来更深才对，我重新编辑了一下词条（编辑已审核通过）。



Coolidge effect(柯立芝效应)

人对新的异性更感兴趣

In biology and psychology, the Coolidge effect is a phenomenon seen in mammalian species whereby males (and to a lesser extent females) exhibit renewed sexual interest if introduced to new receptive sexual partners, even after cessation of sex with prior but still available sexual partners. The evolutionary benefit to this phenomenon is that a male canfertilize multiple females. The male may be reinvigorated repeatedly for successful insemination of multiple females.

来源故事：An old joke about Calvin Coolidge when he was President … The President and Mrs. Coolidge were being shown “separately” around an experimental government farm. When “Mrs. Coolidge” came to the chicken yard she noticed that a rooster was mating very frequently. She asked the attendant how often that happened and was told, "Dozens of times each day." Mrs.Coolidge said, "Tell that to the President when he comes by." Upon being told, the President asked, "Same hen every time?" The replywas, "Oh, no, Mr. President, a different hen every time." President:"Tell that to Mrs. Coolidge."

cross-race effect

女生怀孕之后，忽然发现「怎么满街都是孕妇」

The cross-race effect (sometimes called cross-race bias, other-race bias or own-race bias) refers to the tendency to more easily recognize members of one's own race. A study was made which examined 271 real court cases. In photographic line-ups, 231 witnesses participated in cross-race versus same-race identification. In cross-race lineups, only 45% were correctly identified versus 60% for same-race identifications.

Dunning–Kruger effect

人通常会高估自己的能力。另外，当我们认为某项工作超简单时，会想当然地觉得，别人也会这么想。

The Dunning–Kruger effect is a cognitivebias in which relatively unskilled persons suffer illusory superiority, mistakenly assessing their ability to be much higher than it really is. Dunningand Kruger attributed this bias to a metacognitive inability of the unskilled to recognize their own ineptitude and evaluate their own ability accurately.Their research also suggests corollaries: highly skilled individuals may underestimate their relative competence and may erroneously assume that tasks which are easy for them are also easy for others.

The bias was first experimentally observed by David Dunning and Justin Kruger of Cornell University in 1999. They postulated that the effect is the result of internal illusion in the unskilled,and external misperception in the skilled: "The miscalibration of the incompetent stems from an error about the self, whereas the miscalibration of the highly competent stems from an error about others."

endowment effect

没有「公主」这张卡的时候，我觉得它只值100块钱，有了之后，觉得它值300块钱。

In psychology and behavioral economics, the endowment effect (also known as divestiture aversion and related to the mereownership effect in social psychology) is the hypothesis that people ascribe more value to things merely because they own them. This is typically illustrated in two ways. In a valuation paradigm,people will tend to pay more to retain something they own than to obtain something they do not own—even when there is no cause for attachment, or even if the item was only obtained minutes ago. In an exchange paradigm, people given a good are reluctant to trade it for another good of similar value. For example, participants first given a Swiss chocolate bar were generally unwilling to trade it for a coffee mug, whereas participants first given the coffee mug were generally unwilling to trade it for the chocolate bar.

false-consensus effect

「跟我想法不同的人，要么是奇葩，要么跟我有智商鸿沟」，此想法在群体中尤盛。

In psychology, the false-consensus effector false-consensus bias is an attributional type of cognitive bias wherebypeople tend to overestimate the extent to which their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and habits are normal and typical of those of others(i.e., that others also think the same way that they do). This cognitive biastends to lead to the perception of a consensus that does not exist, a"false consensus".

This false consensus is significant because it increases self-esteem (overconfidence effect). It is derived from a desire to conform and be liked by others in a social environment. This bias is especially prevalent in group settings where one thinks the collective opinion of their own group matches that of the larger population.

Maintenance of this cognitive bias may be related to the tendency to make decisions with relatively little information.

false fame effect（source-monitoring error）

当看到某个我们熟悉的陌生人名字时，我们会误以为这是个名人的名字。

In the false fame experiment, participants are presented with a list of non-famous names. Later, they are presented with the same names as before, with new non-famous and famous people. The participants then have to determine which names are famous, and the typical finding is that the old non-famous names are often misidentified as famous. Thisis a source-monitoring error because they have attributed the name's actual origin to a source other than the list where they originally read it.

A source-monitoring error is a type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience. For example, individuals may learn about a current event from a friend, but later report having learned about it on the local news, thus reflecting an incorrect source attribution.This error occurs when normal perceptual and reflective processes are disrupted, either by limited encoding of source information or by disruption to the judgment processes used in source-monitoring. Depression, high stress levels and damage to relevant brain areas are examples of factors that can cause such disruption and hence source-monitoring errors.

framing effect

损失比相同金额的收益更能引起我们的注意。

The framing effect is an example of cognitive bias, in which people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented; e.g. as a loss or as a gain. People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negativeframe is presented.

Prospect theory shows that a loss is more significant than the equivalent gain,that a sure gain (certainty effect and pseudocertainty effect) is favored over a probabilistic gain, and that a probabilistic loss is preferred to a definite loss. One of the dangers of framing effects is that people are often provided with options within the context of only one of the two frames.

The concept helps to develop an understanding of frame analysis within social movements, and also in the formation of political opinion where spin plays a large role in political opinion polls that are framed to encourage a response beneficial to the organization that has commissioned the poll. It has been suggested that the use of the technique is discrediting political polls themselves. The effect reduces, or even eliminates, if ample, credible information is provided to people.

完整的词条里讲了一个实验，但我觉得这个实验可能有问题：改变实验中的金额大小，可能会有不同结果——

面对以下两个选择：

A.100%得到1元

B.1%的概率得到100元

大多数人可能会选择后者。

Florence Nightingale effect（护士爱上病人）

个人理解：这就是人们面对「沉默成本」的一般反应。

当女生对渣男付出足够多的感情后，一般无法决绝地提出分手，而会骗自己「再给他一次机会，他以后一定会改的」。

The Florence Nightingale effect is asituation where a caregiver develops romantic and/or sexual feelings for his/her patient, even if very little communication or contact takes place outside of basic care. Feelings may fade once the patient is no longer in need of care, either by recovery or death.

    关注 有常识