学会提问（三）什么是论题和结论？

Whataretheissueandtheconclusion?...

在我们讨论评估别人的观点立论以前，我们先要找到“在讨论什么事情”和“别人的结论”。听起来容易, 做起来难。

什么是论题？

论题是会话或讨论中出现的有争议的问题。对人们所谈论的事情来说，论题是一个刺激因素。

An issue is a question or controversy responsible for the conversation or discussion. It is the stimulus for what is being said.

论题分为两种：描述性论题和说明性论题（descriptive/prescriptive）

描述性论题：针对有关过去、现状、将来的描述是否正确提出的问题。（Descriptive issue are those that raise questions about the accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, of future.）

例如：学习音乐会提高数学能力吗？

产生家庭暴力的主要原因是什么？

抗抑郁药能有效治疗抑郁症吗？

说明性论题：就是我们针对我们应该做什么及对与错好与坏的问题。（Prescriptive issue are those that raised question about what we should do or what is right or wrong , good or bad.）

例如：在公立学习应该教神创论吗？

应该怎么对待医疗欺诈？

怎么找到论题？

a）直接：作者或演讲者直接告诉我们论题是什么。通常文章的开通或标题就直接告诉读者论题。

b）间接：有时作者不会直接告诉我们论题，我们必须根据线索进行推断。了解作者的背景可以帮助我们理解作者的论题。

c）找到结论——往往我们找到结论，论题就非常清楚了。

The surest way to detect an issue when it is not explicitly stated, however, is to locate the conclusion. In many cases, the conclusion must be found before you can identify the issue. Thus, in such cases, the first step in critical evaluation is to find the conclusion-a frequently difficult step.

We cannot critically evaluate until we find the conclusion!

结论：就是作者或者演讲者希望你接受的信息。

A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept.

Conclusion are inferred; they are derived from reasoning. Conclusions are ideas that require other ideas to support them. Thus, whenever someone claims something is true or ought to be done and provides no statements to support her claim, that claim is not a conclusion because that person has not offered any basis for belief. In contrast, unsupported claims are what we refer to as mere opinions.

结论是由推理产生的，它起源于原因。结论是一种需要其它观点支持的观点。因此，无论什么时候，如果某人声称某件事是真实的或者是应该做的，却提不出任何证据来支持他的观点，那么他的这个观点就不是结论，因为他没有提高可支持的证据。因此，没有支持的言论仅仅是一些观点而非结论。寻找结论：

a)     寻找论题：因为结论往往是论题的答案，如果你知道论题是什么，将有助于你找到结论。

b)    看提示语：作者在呈现结论时，往往会用明显的提示语。如“所以、因此、那么等”。

c)     看可能出现结论的特殊位置。首先要找的两个地方就是文章的开头和结尾。

d)    记住那些不是结论：以下这些类型的陈述都不是结论：例子、统计数据、定义、背景信息、证据。

e)     检查上下文及作者的背景。

f)       问问这个问题：“因此呢？”即作者希望我们通过文章提供的信息得出他所暗示的结论吗？

写作和交流的时候需要注意什么？

当你写作时应该注意什么？

When we write, we often think our meaning is crystal clear. After all, our argument seems perfectly clear to us. Unfortunately, several barriers keep our readers from easily understanding that which is transparent to us. Our readers cannot hear our inner thoughts and our many hidden beliefs. They do not know our values or backgrounds. They have no access to our research or our brainstorming notes. All they have is the page or screen in front of them. For this reason, we urge you to make a special effort to be clear and transparent in your writing. You should expect to hear this message from us again over the course of our writing suggestions. One of the greatest barriers to critical thinking is a failure to bridge the communication gap.

当我们写作时，通常我们自认为表达的很清楚。但实际情况远非如此。读者可能根本不了解你的背景、你的价值观；也不清楚你内在的想法和隐含的见解。读者没有办法进入到你的大脑，如你一样经历着你头脑里的思想风暴。他们只能看到冷冰冰的荧幕。基于以上原因，写作时更应该尽量清晰明了。

l  Narrowing your issue prior to writing 写作前缩小论题

Whether your prewriting approach is painstaking or more off the cuff, we urge you to take a moment to determine your issue prior to delving into your writing. One of the qualities that distinguishes mature writers from developing writers is the presence of a clear precise issue.l  Cluing your reader into you conclusion 为读者找到你的结论提供线索

When you write, you want to leave your readers with absolutely no doubt about the argument through which you are trying to persuade them. Your conclusion and your reasons should be easily identifiable. When you are writing or speaking with the purpose of communicating a particular conclusion, your readers or listeners will be looking for it. Help them by giving it the clarity it deserves.

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